Dedicated to boosting research and scholarship on the Muhammadiyah and strengthening this movement
Friday, December 31, 2010
The Borderline between Muslim Fundamentalism and Muslim Modernism: An Indonesian Example
Beck, Herman L. 2001. "The Borderline between Muslim Fundamentalism and Muslim Modernism: An Indonesian Example." in Anton Houtepen and Jan Willem van Henten. 2001. Religious identity and the invention of tradition. Assen, the Netherlands: Royal Van Gorcum. pp. 279-291.
Throughout the turbulent times surrounding Suharto's stepping down as President of Indonesia in May 1998, the Muhammadiyah movement was often mentioned thanks to the actions of its then chairman, Amien Rais (b. 1944). In the Western news coverage of the events, two aspects were always emphasized. The Muhammadiyah was called a modernist movement and its members were numbered around twenty million, making it a potentially powerful force which had to be taken into account by the main figures in the struggle for power. Sometimes, it was added that the Muhammadiyah movement was outnumbered only by the thirty-five million members of the Nahdlatul Ulama, which was invariably called a traditionalist Muslim organization.
In conversations about the contemporary political situation in Indonesia, I have noticed that, unconsciously, most Western people seem to prefer the modernist Muslim organization to the traditionalist one. Apparently, regarding the future of Indonesia, they have higher hopes for Muslim modernism than they have for Muslim traditionalism. They associate probably Muslim modernism in some way or another with Western modernism. However, studying the history of the Muhammadiyah movement, one discovers that, since its establishment in 1912, several labels have been put on the organization to characterize it, labels varying from a "modernist" movement to, quite recently, an "Islamis," and "a large, well-organized Islamic fundamentalist movement." Would people still prefer the Muhammadiyah movement, if it was called a Muslim fundamentalist movement, to a Mslim traditionalist organization?
If one and the same Muslim movement can be called both a modernist and a fundamentalist one, does this imply that these Western terms are not appropriate to be used in an Indonesian Muslim context, especially, because of the fact that anti-modernism is, generally, considered to be one of the most important characteristics of all kinds of fundamentalism? Are the terms modernism and fundamentalism to be replaced by other, less contaminated or comprehensive terms? I do not think this will be useful, because, although these terms can create erroneous impressions, they have become too current to be easily replaced. Moreover, the multifaced character of the Muhammadiyah movement may easily cause confusion, because certain aspects of its character are considered to fall roughly into the broad Western category of modern modernism, while other aspects are rated among the features of the broad Western category of religious fundamentalism.
Although one of the tasks of the Western scholar of the history of religions and comparative religion is to characterize his object of study on the basis of data available to him by using labels understandable to his Western readers, it is also his task continually to stress the fact that phenomena of the Muslim world are rarely adequately covered by Western labels. Therefore, to solve the question of whether the Muhammadiyah is a modernist or fundamentalist movement the first section of this contribution will be dedicated to a discussion of the term religious modernism when applied to the Muhammadiyah movement. In the second section, some general features of religious fundamentalism(s) will be given. The third section will focus on some elements the Muhammadiyah movement and Muslim fundamentalism to have in common. Finally by pointing out some significant differences between the Muhammadiyah movement and Muslim fundamentalism, it will become clear in the concluding section that, in my view, the Muhammadiyah cannot be considered a religious fundamentalist movement, although it shares some aspects with what is commonly called Muslim fundamentalism...
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Thursday, December 30, 2010
Islamic Purity at Odds with Javanese Identity
The Muhammadiyah and the Celebration of the Garebeg Maulud Ritual in Yogyakarta
Herman Beck
(Theologische Faculteit Tilburg)
... As for Ahmad Dahlan himself, his aim was to purify Islam by openly opposing various manifestations of innovation and superstition which had crept in, such as the ritual community meals (Jav./In., slametan or kenduren), the visits to graves and the veneration of saints, the belief in amulets (Jav./In., jimat) and heirlooms (Jav./In., pusaka) as possessing magical power and sacred energy, and religious relics dating from the Hindu and Buddhist periods in Indonesia. He considered these religious phenomena, often referred to as expressions of adat, as shirk or polytheism, to be worst sin possible, in flat contradiction to the most important Islamic doctrine of tawhid, the profession of the unity of God. Surprisingly, however, neither Ahmad Dahlan nor any other representative member of the Muhammadiyah has, to my knowledge, ever made an official statement condemning the celebration of the Garebeg Maulud ritual by the Sultan of Yogyakarta as innovation or superstition. This Garebeg Maulud ritual is, nonetheless, impregnated with concepts, rites and symbols, which are generally renounced by the Muhammadiyah.
In order to trace the motive(s) which held the Muhammadiyah back from officially condemning the Garebeg Maulud ritual, I will first sketch its celebration in broad outlines, and then try to ascertain, by tracing the origin and the historical development of the Garebeg Maulud ritual, which of its features should be considered as integral and indispesable parts of the ritual. Thirdly, I will dwell on some interpretations of, and comments on, the Garebeg Maulud ritual and its various parts, made by both Muhammadiyah members and others. In section four I will discuss the social environment in which the Muhammadiyah developed in early 20th century Yogyakarta. Finally, in the concluding section, I will demonstrate that iti is the social environment of the movement which is responsible for its historical and current attitude towards the Garebeg Maulud ritual...
Beck, H. 1995. "Islamic purity at odds with Javanese identity: the Muhammadiyah and the celebration of the Garebeg Maulud ritual in Yogyakarta". In Jan Platvoet and Karel van der Toorn (eds.). Pluralism and Identity: Studies in Ritual Behaviour. Leiden: Brill. pp. 261-284.
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Wednesday, December 29, 2010
Sustaining Islamic Activism in Secular Environments: The Muhammadiyah Movement in Singapore
Working Paper Series No. 120
Sustaining Islamic Activism in Secular Environments:
The Muhammadiyah Movement in Singapore
Syed Muhd Khairudin Aljunied
Department of Malay Studies, national University of Singapore
mlsasmk@nus.edu.sg.
August 2009
http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/wps/wps09_120.pdf
The role of Islamic activists in shaping the politics and religious life of Muslims in secular states has attracted an increasing level of scholarly interest and media attention in recent years in view of the current global war against terror. In Southeast Asia, as well as in North America and Europe, the genesis, structure, membership and sources of funding of Muslim movements have come under the close scrutiny of states and security analysts, whose overriding concerns are the identification and proscription of groups that lean in any way towards support for violance... One movement that has attracted the attention of both colonial and postcolonial authorities in Singapore is the Muhammadiyah, due mainly to its promotion of a missionary ideology and unyielding critiques of practices that are deemed as incompatible with the pure Islamic faith.
This paper is not intended as a response to state policies. Rather, it aims to add to the small body of scholarly literature surrounding Islamic activism and Muslim movements in Singapore. While many studies have been devoted to the history and evolution of the forty-million-strong Muhammadiyah movement in Indonesia, very little has been written about movements in other parts of Southeast Asia that have shared common general goals and ideas. To this lacuna must be added the preoccupation of past students and scholars with the study of selected Islamic movements in Singapore, particularly the All-Malaya Missionary Society (or Jamiyah), owing to the remarkable breadth of its activities and to its prolonged existence. The Muhammadiyah movement in Singapore thus deserves a more in-depth analysis and treatment, not only because of the paucity of works about it, but also because of its reformist and modernist outlook, which parallels that of Jamiyah. Both movements have also been equally attuned to global developments, while simultaneously demonstrating a high degree of dynamism and commitment in their engagement with local challenges, especially in the realm of the educatio, social welfare and religious guidance.
Furthermore, the fact that the Muhammadiyah movement has maintained a strong presence since 1958, whilst operating effectively within a secular, non-Muslim-dominated society governed by what have been described as 'illiberal democratic' colonial and post-colonial regimes in Singapore, is a particularly interesting theme that calls for deeper investigation...
... The Muhammadiyah, as will be argued, provides an informative case study of a Muslim movement in Singapore that has been successful in overcoming the limits of social demography and state secularism by broadening its activities and ideology, and by readjusting its modus operandi in accordance with evolving political and social contexts. Additionally, the interplay between local Islamic activism and international movements and the appropriation of global Islamic discourses and paradigms within a local context as exemplified by the Muhammadiyah reflects the creative agency of Muslims in Singapore which allows for comparison in the study of Islam in other parts of Asia.
By synthesizing historical evidence with insights and concepts borrowed from social movement theorists, this paper will provide a critical analysis of the processes that have enabled the Muhammadiyah movement in Singapore to sustain its relevance and vitality. I will argue that four processes have been crucial in this regard, the foremost being the symbiotic relationship between the leaders and the led. The esprit de corps among the rank and file was instrumental in the forging of the networks and links, both locally and globally. The crucial roles palyed by key members of Muhammadiyah in the formulation and subsequent revision of the movement's ideational frames constituted the second process that will be elaborated at length. Thirdly, there existed, from time to time, political opportunity structures which Muhammadiyah judiciously exploited, insofar as this strategy did not compromise the general goals of the movement. The fourth historical determinant is to be found in the availability of a wide array of mobilizing structures, which served as bases for the dissemination of the movement's ideology, and as arenas where new members could be recruited and funding could be sought. The next part of this paper will discuss the origins of the Muhammadiyah movement and its formalization, focusing primarily on the background of its key personalities and the contexts within which they operated. This section, which will also elucidate the rendering of the movement's history, will be followed by an explication of the four processes bwhich contributed to the consolidation and expansion of the movement from 1958 to 2007.
Tuesday, December 28, 2010
Muhammadiyah's Experience in Promoting Civil Society on the Eve of the 21st Century
Abdullah, M Amin. 2001. "Muhammadiyah's Experience in Promoting Civil Society on the Eve of the 21st Century." In Mitsuo Nakamura, Sharon Siddique, and Omar Farouk Bajunid. Islam & civil society in Southeast Asia. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 43-54.
In reviewing approaches in the study of civil society, Robert Hefner has discerned two patterns:
This chapter argues that the Muhammadiyah, as an Islamic social-religious organization in Indonesia, cannot be aptly explained by this binary and dichotomous approach. The most critical point in understanding civility and democracy concerns not one, but both, of these variables --not in isolation, but as a "socio-genetic" or dialectical interaction, and even as something interwoven between both sides.
There are various definitions of civil society. The essence of civil society, as once defined by Robert Hefner, emphasizes "material prosperity,... tolerance of dissenting viewpoints, limits on state power, the freedom to express their views and choosing their own way of life". Meanwhile, Peter Berger emphasizes the notion of pluralism rather than secularism. It should be noted beforehand, that the concept of civil society surfaced and suddenly became popular around the 1980s, and was inspired and provoked by the decline of almost all socialist regimes in Eastern Europe. It is rather difficult, actually, to directly relate this concept of civil society with the Muhammadiyah's existence. It is my belief, however, that the concept of civil society is not limited to the late eighties and nineties. In the case of Indonesian Muslims, this awareness came in the early twentieth century. It was exemplified by the establishment of such non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as the Muhammadiyah in 1912, the Nahdlatul Ulama in 1926, and many others around the same time. It is obvious, however, that the social and cultural context in Indonesia then was totally different from that which existed in 1980s in Eastern Europe, or even from that of France in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries when the idea of civil society first emerged. Without going into a comparison, I would like to delineate the Muhammadiyah's experience as a modern Islamic movement in Southeast Asia in promoting and implementing those civic virtues in Indonesian society.
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Monday, December 27, 2010
Bapelurzam Kendal: A Muhammadiyah Zakat Movement
Alawiyah Najib, Tuti. 2006. "Bapelurzam Kendal: A Muhammadiyah Zakat Movement." Caider S. Bamualim et.al. Islamic Philanthropy and Social Development. Jakarta: Center for the Study of Religion and Culture. pp. 143-166.
The collection and management of zakat within Muhammadiyah was initiated by the Central Leadership's Decree No. 02/pp/1979 which ordered the establishment of a Muhammadiyah zakat agency. The purpose of this agency was to better regulate zakat collection and distribution and ensure that the full potential of zakat in improving social welfare was realized. This is not to say that such this concept did not exist in the organization prior to this, for if we look closer into the organization's history, we see that the concept of organizing zakat and eradicating poverty through zakat already existed at the time of the organization's inception. The organization had from the very beginning sought to stress the importance of helping and caring for the needy. KH. Ahmad Dahlan, the founder of Muhammadiyah, often recited Surat Al-Maun of the Holy Qur'an whenever he addressed Muhammadiyah audiences. This Surat reinforces the importance of caring for and helping the needy, particularly orphans and the poor, as Allah labels those who perform their prayers but do not also care for the needy as weak Muslims.
This chapter serves as a study of Badan Pelaksana Urusan Zakat Muhammadiyah (the Muhammadiyah Agency for Zakat Affairs) or Bapelurzam Kendal. This agency is a part of the local branch of Muhammadiyah in Kendal, and was established solely for the purpose of managing zakat. Bapelurzam Kendal was selected for this study because it has recorded the highest success rate in the collection and distribution fo zakat mal compared to other Muhammadiyah branches. Apart from that, this institution clearly illustrates the work and activities of Muhammadiyah in the field of zakat at the regional and branch levels where it had begun.
Sunday, December 26, 2010
Muhammadiyah-NU: Perbedaankah atau Perpecahan?
Gusdur.net, Jum'at, 16 Agustus 2002
Oleh : KH. Abdurrahman Wahid
Ketika Muhammadiyah didirikan pada tahun 1912, KH. M. Hasyim Asy\'ari dari Tebuireng, Jombang, menanyakan siapa pendirinya. Mendengar jawaban KH. Ahmad Dahlan, beliau ganti bertanya, adakah orang itu santri yang bersama beliau mengaji pada KH. Sholeh Darat (Semarang)? Ketika memperoleh kepastian bahwa KH. Ahmad Dahlan itu adalah orang yang dimaksud tersebut, beliau mengatakan tentu Muhammadiyah organisasi yang baik, karena tokoh pendiri tersebut adalah orang baik. Hal ini dapat kita benarkan, kalau kita ikuti sejarah Muhammadiyah. Tekanan pada pendidikan, kesehatan dan kegiatan-kegiatan sosial menunjukkan hal itu dengan nyata.
Hal ini jugalah yang tampak dari pergaulan KH. M Bisri Syansuri, ketika beliau menjadi anggota PBNU, dan praktis menguasai Majlis-Majlis Hukum Agama (Majaalis al-Figh) --sebelum beliau membawa pendapat-pendapatnya ke forum tersebut, beliau selalu pergi ke Yogyakarta, untuk memperdebatkannya dengan KH. Hadjid dari Pengurus Pusat (PP) Muhammadiyah. Terkadang mereka bisa berdebat selama tiga hari berturut-turut dan terkadang pula mereka bersama pergi ke rumah KH. Adzkiya di Kroya (Pak Tua Ir. Musthofa Zuhad, dari PBNU sekarang) untuk maksud yang sama. Baru setelah itu, KH. M. Bisri Syansuri memaparkan \"pendapatnya\" kepada forum-forum di atas, yaitu setelah melalui \"uji-coba\" dengan kedua orang tersebut. Kelihatan sekali, antara mereka tidak ada jarak yang harus dijembatani, karena perbedaan pendapat di antara mereka adalah hal yang biasa, seperti perbedaan pendapat dengan iparnya, KH. A. Wahab Chasbulah.
Penulis pernah tinggal selama tiga tahun (1954-1957) di rumah KH. M. Djunaidi di Kauman, Yogyakarta. Di tempat itu, penulis sering melihatnya berdebat sangat lama tentang soal-soal figh, dengan tokoh NU KH. Ali Ma\'sum dari Pondok Pesantren Krapyak, yang belakangan menjadi Rais ‘Am PBNU. Padahal, induk semang penulis, KH. M. Djunaidi itu belakangan menjadi anggota Majlis Tarjih (Dewan Agama) PP. Muhammadiyah. Di sini, tampak jelas bagi penulis, adanya keakraban antara tokoh-tokoh puncak NU dan Muhammadiyah tersebut.
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Pertanyaan utamanya adalah, kita melihat keakraban tersebutkah dalam menilai hubungan Muhammadiyah dan NU, atau justru sebaliknya? Justru yang kita lihat sehari-hari, sikap fanatik baik dari orang-orang NU maupun dari orang-orang Muhammadiyah sendiri, hingga terkadang tampak sebagai pertentangan dan perpecahan, bukannya sebagai perbedaan. Ini sangat diperlukan, karena tanpa memperoleh jawaban yang tepat, perpecahan dalam tubuh kedua organisasi Islam terbesar di negeri kita itu tampak semakin menjadi-jadi. Tentu ini tidak kita inginkan, sehingga kalau memang benar-benar keduanya berpecah dan bertentangan, hendaknya dapat diarahkan kepada perbedaan saja. Ini adalah proses pendidikan yang berlangsung lama, namun tak dapat terhindarkan.
Salah satu sebab mengapa tampak yang terjadi adalah pertentangan, dan bukannya perbedaan, adalah akibat tekanan kedua-duanya atas institusi atau lembaga, dalam hal ini kedua organisasi tersebut. Tekanan pada kelembagaan, membawakan keharusan untuk mempertahankan kepentingan/interest kedua perkumpulan tersebut, yang masing-masing bertabrakan satu sama lain. Pihak sendiri harus dimenangkan, dan pihak lain harus di\"kalah\"kan. Jadilah seolah-olah mereka saling berhadapan, padahal dalam kenyataan mereka menganut corak kehidupan yang sama yaitu mementingkan akhlak/moralitas/etika. Terkenal dengan ucapan H. Munawir Sadzali, mantan menteri agama kita, bahwa di Muhammadiyah ada orang NU bernama Ahmad Azhar Basyir (Ketua Umum PP. Muhammadiyah saat itu, dan di lingkungan PBNU ada orang Muhammadiyah bernama Abdurrahman Wahid), yang membawakan pembaharuan-pembaharuan.
Bahwa kedua perkumpulan itu memiliki persamaan-persamaan penting, jarang sekali diingat. Pertama, kedua-duanya mengacu pada tujuan kemaslahatan umat, yang dalam literatur kita umumnya disebut kesejahteraan rakyat. Pembukaan UUD kita, yang dibuat antara lain oleh tokoh-tokoh kedua organisasi itu, merumuskan hal itu sebagai masyarakat adil dan makmur. Jadi, tak benarlah ungkapan salah seorang Kyai NU; al-hamdulilah, keluarga besar kita semuanya beraqidah Islam, minimal Muhammadiyah. Menanggapi hal ini, Ahmad Azhar Basyir memberikan komentar, di Muhammadiyah juga banyak orang yang menganggap NU minimal.
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Aspek lain yang jarang dilihat orang, yakni perlakuan Keraton Hamengkubuanan di Yogyakarta. Keraton tersebut \"merangkul\" kedua-duannya, dengan menyantuni NU (melalui status \"Masjid Pethok Nagari\" di Mlangi dan Wonokromo) serta tetap membiarkan KH. Ahmad Dahlan menjadi penghulu keraton setelah mengadakan pembaharuan dengan mendirikan Muhammadiyah. Jadi, baik tradisionalisme maupun pembaharuan sama-sama memperoleh santunan dari keraton, yang sekarang bertambah dengan kebiasaan \"semaan\" al-Qur\'an yang dahulu dirintis oleh alm. Kyai Hamim Jazuli (Gus Mik).
Kedua hal yang berbeda itu, yakni tradisionalisme Nu dan pembaharuan Muhammadiyah, seringkali melupakan kita. Dari sesuatu yang sangat penting: Islamisasi terbatas/limited Islamization --yang, dirintis Sultan Agung Hanyokro Kusumo, dengan pemakaian hukum-hukum nikah figh sebagai \"peraturan\" di keraton dan pemakaian bulan Muharom sebagai permulaan tahun Saka, ini dilanjutkan oleh pimpinan keraton.
Tentunya, ini harus memperhitungkan kenyataan bahwa --untuk beberapa dasa warsa, cara kehidupan \"sekuler\" yang tidak mau tahu dengan ajaran agama sempat menerapkan dominasinya atas masyarakat kita, termasuk keraton.
Dengan demikian jelaslah, bahwa keraton Hamengkubuanan memperlakukan Muhammadiyah dan NU, sebagai sebuah budaya, dengan tidak mementingkan institusinya. Ini adalah tindakan yang sangat bijaksana, yang sudah sepatutnya ditiru dan dicontoh oleh para pimpinan kedua organisasi tersebut.
Dengan ungkapan lain, baik tradisionalisme NU maupun pembaharuan Muhammadiyah haruslah diukur secara budaya, dan bukannya secara kelembagaan. Bukankah kini anak-anak muda kedua belah pihak sering dihadapkan kepada tantangan budaya modern yang menjauhkan mereka dari akar-akar budaya masa lampau? Bukankah ini melupakan kita dari kenyataan adanya orang-orang Muhammadinu, yang seringkali sudah tidak melihat relevansi pemisahan keduannya. Kalau saja kita menjadi dewasa dalam hal ini, kita akan melihat keadaan NU dan Muhammadiyah, bukannya pertentangan dan perpecahan antara keduanya.
*Penulis adalah ketua dewan syura DPP PKB
http://www.gusdur.net/pemikiran/Detail/?id=26/hl=id/Muhammadiyah-NU_Perbedaankah_Atau_Perpecahan
Friday, December 24, 2010
Tugas Berat Muhammadiyah
Oleh Prof. Dr. Nurcholish Madjid
MUHAMMADIYAH merupakan contoh menarik tentang sebuah konsekuensi pendidikan yang tidak disengaja, dalam hal ini pendidikan modern (Belanda). Bermula sebagai bagian dari Politik Etis (1901), pendidikan modern Belanda diperkenalkan oleh pemerintahan kolonial dengan tujuan ganda: memberikan kesempatan kepada pribumi untuk berpartisipasi dalam peradaban modern dan untuk menjinakkan gerakan liar kemerdekaan Indonesia. Implikasi dari tujuan pendidikan hourgrojeian itu (dari kata Snouck Hourgrounje, red) adalah bahwa semakin banyak orang Indonesia yang mengikuti pendidikan modern, semakin luas partisipasi mereka dalam agenda noblesse oblige (kewajiban mulia, red) kaum kulit putih untuk memberadabkan bangsa barbar non-kulit putih.
Tetapi hasilnya ternyata membawa berkah berganda. Di satu pihak, pemerintahan kolonial mulai melihat munculnya kelas terdidik birokrat yang taat kepada pemerintah, tapi di lain pihak ada konsekuensi sampingan. Gerakan nasionalis modern tumbuh dari sistem tersebut, salah satunya adalah Muhammadiyah. Yang lainnya adalah Budi Utomo dan Syarikat Dagang Islam/Syarikat Islam.
Adalah sebuah hikmah ganda, bahwa lahirnya gerakan reformasi Islam seperti Muhammadiyah disambut baik pemerintahan kolonial (sebuah perangko diluncurkan pemerintah kolonial untuk menghormati "pelayanan baik" Muhammadiyah kepada pemerintahan Belanda). Tapi pada saat yang sama, Muhammadiyah dikhawatirkan menjadi ujung tombak gerakan modernis Islam seperti yang terjadi di Mesir dengan tokohnya Jamaluddin al-Afghani, atau seperti yang dilakukan Muhammad Abduh dan Rashid Ridha di Timur Tengah yang akhirnya menjadikan kolonialisme sebagai sasaran nasionalisme radikal.
Sisi lain dari peranan Muhammadiyah dapat dilihat dari kenyataan bahwa, sejalan dengan ide reformasinya, ia memulai agenda sosial keagamaan dengan mendirikan sekolah-sekolah tipe Belanda seperti HIS, MULO, dan AMS, bukannya model pesantren yang telah lama berakar. Bahkan sistem madrasah telah dan masih digunakan secara terbatas. Dengan sifat program pendidikan seperti itu, gerakan Muhammadiyah lebih berafinitas kepada elit kolonial, khususnya elit tradisional Jawa, yaitu priyayi dan golongan birokrat kolonial.
Situasi seperti ini tentu saja mendapatkan reaksi dari mayoritas ulama yang menentang introduksi sekolah-sekolah Belanda. Para cendekiawan, ulama, maupun pemimpin sosial keagaan "tradisional" (yang oleh pemerinah Belanda disebut sebagai volk) bereaksi keras menentang "Politik Etis" dan mengkounternya dengan mendirikan berbagai pesantren. (Ulama sering disalahartikan sebagai sosok seperti pendeta, padahal dalam Islam tidak ada kelas yang memiliki otoritas "gerejani").
Lembaga pesantren telah lama berdiri dalam berbagai budaya, seperti Al-Zaytunah dan Al-Azhar di dunia Arab dan Deoband di India. Di Indonesia ia dianggap sebagai kelanjutan dari "padepokan," sedangkan di dunia internasional ia merupakan kelanjutan dari zawiyah, ribat, khaniqah, dan bahkan funduq (yang kemudian diindonesiakan menjadi "pondok", yang asal katanya adalah bahasa Arab yang meminjam bahasa Yunani/Syriac "phandakiyum" (yang artinya rumah kecil untuk menginap sementara). Namun pondok atau pesantren besar di Jawa seperti Tebuireng, Tambakberas, Rejoso, Lirboyo, Jampes di kompleks Jombang-Kediri telah berdiri pada awal abad ke-20 dan bukan sebagai penyeimbang sistem dan konsep pendidikan Belanda.
Pesantren-pesantren ini kemudian berhimpun dalam gerakan nasionalis lainnya yaitu Nahdatul Ulama (NU). Fakta ini pada tingkat tertentu bisa menjelaskan mengapa ada perbedaan (rupture) antara Muhammadiyah dengan NU sejak awal pergerakan keduanya, dan masih terasa hingga kini.
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BANYAK wajah Muhammadiyah, tapi tentu saja yang paling menonjol adalah wajah reformisnya. Sifat reformis pergerakannya disimbolisasikan dalam sebutan "Muhammadiyah" itu sendiri. Berbagai pengamat menilai penyebutan nama "Muhammadiyah" bisa mengundang berbagai masalah karena bisa saja berarti bahwa para pengikut Muhammadiyah menyembah Muhammad yang sebetulnya "hanya" seorang rasul, seorang manusia biasa yang tidak memiliki kualitas ketuhanan. Tapi tentu saja bukan begitu maksud para pendiri Muhammadiyah. Nampaknya apa yang mereka maksudkan, sesuai dengan misi reformasinya, adalah mengajak semua Muslim untuk tidak terperangkap dalam "madzhabisme" seperti Jafariyah, Hanafiyah, Malikiyah, Syafiiyah, Hanbaliyah dll, dan tidak terpaku pada person seperti pada gerakan Sufi, misalnya Qadariyah, Naqshabadiyah, Tijaniyah dll.
Jadi, terminologi "Muhammadiyah" secara langsung dimaksudkan sebagai pembebasan kaum Muslim dari partikularisme madzhab dan mengajak mereka kembali kepada ajaran murni Rasul Muhammad yang bersumber pada Qur'an dan Sunnah. Konsekuensi positif dari pembebasan religius ini adalah berupa kesiapan warga Muhammadiyah untuk menerima apapun yang baik dan berguna untuk kemanusiaan, seperti ilmu dan pengetahuan, dari manapun sumbernya dan kapanpun datangnya, dan memandangnya sebagai harta warisan kemanusiaan.
Salah satu spirit dasar ajaran Rasulullah, seperti yang dirumuskan ulama klasik, terutama Syafiiyah adalah :"Pada prinsipnya segala ritual yang non-religius dihalalkan kecuali jika ada dalil yang menyatakan sebaliknya (Al-asl fi al-ashya [ghayr al-'ibadah] al-ibahah illa idza ma dalla al-dalil 'ala khilafi-hi)". Ada juga prinsip lain yang merupakan sisi lain dari mata uang yang sama dengan prinsip ini: "Pada prinsipnya segala ritual keagamaan adalah diharamkan kecuali kalau dinyatakan sebaliknya" (Al-asl al-ibadah al-tahrim illa idza ma dalla al-dalil 'ala khilafi-hi).
Tak diragukan lagi, butir-butir di atas merupakan sumbangan besar Muhammadiyah sebagai gerakan reformis. Tapi ketika menjalankan peran reformisnya kemudian, Muhammadiyah mengalami tantangan serius tentang bagaimana mengatasi citra organisasi yang (ironisnya) "dogmatik" dibandingkan dengan NU yang lebih "liberal" dan "fleksibel", menurut majalah Time edisi terakhir. Nampaknya warga Muhammadiyah harus mentrasedensi diri di atas "Muhammadiyah" yang sekarang justru terkesan kuat sebagai Ja'fariyah, Hanafiyah, Malikiyah, Syafiiyah, Hanbaliyah, Qadariyah, Naqshabandiyah, Tijaniyah, dll, dengan dua sisi positif dan negatifnya. Dengan kata lain, "Muhammadiyah" telah tumbuh menjadi madzhab baru lainnya. Suatu cara berpikir yang oleh para pendirinya ingin dihapuskan dari ummat.
Maka, betapapun besarnya pujian yang diterimanya sebagai sebuah organisasi yang sukses membawa umat Islam Indonesia ke arah modernitas, Muhammadiyah kini menghadapi tugas berat untuk meningkatkan proses demokratisasi ummat dan bangsa dengan jalan membangun egalitarianisme, toleransi, pluralisme, inklusivisme, moderasi, dan humanisme universal yang sejati. Semua prinsip ini, yang sudah dipahami para pimpinan Muhammadiyah, secara eksplisit sudah digariskan dalam Qur'an dan Sunnah, tanpa keraguan sedikitpun. Karena Muhammadiyah masih dalam bungkus Asyariyah (sesuatu yang tidak sepenuhnya paralel dengan paham Al-Afghani, Abduh dan Ridha, untuk tidak menyebut Ibnu Taymiyah), maka warga Muhammadiyah dihadapkan pada beban untuk mengembangkan Kalam untuk merespon tuntutan pembangunan kemanusiaan, karena Kalam klasik pada kadar tertentu adalah merupakan respon kaum muslimin terhadap tantangan pada masanya. Wallahu
alam.***
Prof. Dr. Nurcholish Madjid, adalah Rektor Universitas Paradina Mulya
Wednesday, December 22, 2010
Amal Muhammadiyah Menjawab Tantangan Pembangunan Indonesia
Madjid, Nurcholish. 1997. "Amal Muhammadiyah Menjawab Tantangan Pembangunan Indonesia." in Nurcholish Madjid. Tradisi Islam: Peran dan Fungsinya dalam Pembangunan di Indonesia. Jakarta: Paramadina. pp. 107-122.
... Kalau kita lihat dari segi keanggotaan, Muhammadiyah adalah organisasi Islam "modernis" yang terbesardi dunia, lebih besar daripada organisasi-organisasi "modernis" di negeri Islam yang lain. Muhammadiyah juga sebuah organisasi Islam yang relatif paling berhasil --jika dilihat ciri kelembagaannya yang relatif modern dengan produk-produk sosial-keagamaannya yang sangat mengesankan-- dibanding dengan organisasi Islam yang mana pun, baik yang ada di negeri kita maupun di negeri Islam yang lain. Karena itu, bisa dikatakan bahwa dalam kalangan Islam --tidak terbatas pada skala nasional, melainkan juga internasional-- Muhammadiyah adalah sebuah cerita sukses bagi organisasi Islam "modernis."
Namun, beberapa pernyataan itu harus segera disusul dengan pernyataan lain yang bernada memperingatkan: Muhammadiyah itu besar, modern, dan sukses adalah terutama sebagai gerakan amaliah. Ini dapat dipandang sebagai suatu keunggulan, sebab toh Islam, sebagaimana halnya dengan kehidupan manusia itu sendiri, mendapatkan modal eksistensinya dalam amal. Tetapi, kelebihan Muhammadiyah di bidang amaliah ini juga merupakan suatu kekurangan, yaitu jika memang watak kepraktisan Muhammadiyah itu berimplikasi kurangnya wawasan. Padahal wawasan itu mutlak diperlukan tidak saja sebagai perangkat yang memberi kesadaran menyeluruh atas semua kegiatan amaliah dan sebagai kerangka untuk dapat dilihat hubungan organik antara berbagai bagian kegiatan amaliah tersebut, tetapi juga sebagai energi bagi pengembangan dinamis dan kreatif kegiatan amaliah itu sendiri. Ditinjau dari segi wawasan ini, kelompok yang relatif sangat kecil seperti Jama`at-i Islam-i di Pakistan yang modernis, atau Jama`at-i Ulama-i Hind dari India, masih lebih unggul dari Muhammadiyah, meskipun dari segi amaliah sosial-keagamaan kelompok-kelompok itu bukan tandingan Muhammadiyah.
Kurangnya wawasan ini akan membuat sumber energi kegiatan lekas terkuras habis, dan keseluruhan sistem dapat terancam stagnan (mandek), kecuali jika selalu ada kemungkinan dapat "infus" dari luar, seperti adanya (kesan) gejala bahwa Muhammadiyah selama ini selalu mendapat "infus" dari pesantren (NU [?]). "Infus" dari pesantren ini dalam bentuk bergabungnya tenaga ulama atau kiai dari pesantren yang kemudian tergabung sebagai inti keanggotaannya...
Karena orientasi kepraktisan yang menjadi titik berat misi organisasi itu, maka Muhammadiyah menjadi lahan subur persemaian produk-produk intelektual kelompok Islam yang lain, yang belum tentu berlangsung dengan daya saring "kemuhammadiyahan" yang memadai...
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Sunday, December 19, 2010
Relevansi Kesufian Buya Hamka bagi Kehidupan Keagamaan di Indonesia
Madjid, Nurcholish. 1997. "Relevansi Kesufian Buya Hamka bagi Kehidupan Keagamaan di Indonesia." in Nurcholish Madjid. Tradisi Islam: Peran dan Fungsinya dalam Pembangunan di Indonesia. Jakarta: Paramadina. pp. 123-132.
... Keunikan Buya Hamka antara lain terletak dalam kenyataan bahwa beliau adalah seorang penganut reformasi Islam, bahkan termasuk salah seorang pelopor dan pemimpinnya yang paling berpengaruh. Namun, berbeda dengan kebanyakan kaum reformis yang lain, beliau menunjukkan minat intelektual yang besar sekali pada tasawuf atau sufisme. Dengan perhatian itu Buya Hamka disebut unik, karena kebanyakan tokoh reformasi Islam menunjukkan sikap anti tasawuf atau sufisme. Bahkan tidak jarang mereka ini langsung menyamakan cabang keilmuan Islam tradisional ini sebagai bid'ah yang harus diberantas. Sebagai seorang reformis, Buya Hamka juga melihat bahwa pada tasawuf itu terdapat berbagai gejala yang tidak bisa dibenarkan oleh ajaran Islam. Tetapi, beliau masih tetap melihat adanya segi-segi yang otentik dalam tasawuf. Dan segi-segi otentik itu beliau perlakukan begitu rupa sehingga tampak sebagai kelanjutan wajar dari semangat ajaran Islam sendiri, khususnya tawhid. Jadi, jelas sekali bahwa Buya Hamka adalah seorang yang menyimpan apresiasi yang tinggi pada inti ajaran kesufian...
... sebagai seorang reformis dan modernis, Buya Hamka juga melancarkan kritik-kritik yang pedas terhadap tasawuf dan kaum sufi. Dan agar dapat melihat konsistensi pemikiran Buaya Hamka, maka di sini perlu dijelaskan bahwa yang menjadi sasaran kecaman Buya Hamka sebenarnya bukanlah tasawuf itu an sich, melainkan tasawuf sebagaimana diamalkan orang banyak. Dengan kata lain, Buya Hamka sesungguhnya menggunakan kategori analitis "sufisme-filosofis" dan "sufisme-populer". Bagi beliau, "sufisme-filosofis" dapat dibenarkan, bahkan beliau ikut mengembangkan dan meluruskannya dengan berbagai karangan, baik dalam bentuk buku (seperti Tasawuf Modern), maupun dalam bentuk karya-karya yang lebih pendek...
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Thursday, December 16, 2010
Melayani Umat: Filantropi Islam dan Ideologi Kesejahteraan Kaum Modernis
Di tengah lemahnya peran negara, segudang pengalaman yang dimiliki kaum modernis Islam di Indonesia, khususnya Muhammadiyah, dalam mengekpresikan "ideologi kesejahteraan" pun ditantang oleh masalah kemiskinan dan penyakit kerawanan sosial di negeri ini yang tak kunjung pulih pasca-krisis multidimensi.
Bagaimanakah kultur dan struktur filantropi Islam kaum modernis di Indo-nesia? Dilema-dilema seperti apakah yang mereka hadapi dalam menjaga relevansi sosialnya? Sembari mencoba menjawab beberapa pertanyaan tersebut, buku ini mengurai rumusan visi kesejahteraan perserikatan Muhammadiyah dalam memasuki "babak baru" perjuangannya.
Selain itu, buku ini juga memotret dinamika gerakan filantropi Muhammadiyah: doktrin, wacana, kebijakan, praktik, proses mobilisasi, dan dilema pengorganisasiannya.
"Hilman Latief adalah salah seorang intelektual muda Muhammadiyah yang memiliki perhatian terhadap relevansi sosial organisasi ini. Buku ini merupakan ekspresi komitmen dan keprihatinan yang dimilikinya."
--Martin van Bruinessen, Professor of Comparative Studies of Contemporary Muslim Societies, Utrecht University
Hilman Latief, Melayani Umat: Filantropi Islam dan Ideologi Kesejahteraan Kaum Modernis (Jakarta: Gramedia, 2010)
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Koran Jakarta, Jumat, 20 Agustus 2010
Judul : Melayani Umat: Filantropi Islam dan Ideologi Kesejahteraan Kaum Modernis
Penulis : Hilman Latief
Penerbit : Gramedia Pustaka Utama
Tahun : 1, Juli 2010
Tebal : 344 halaman
Harga : Rp55.000,-
Bulan Ramadan telah tiba, ini merupakan tonggak utama dari realisasi filantropi, kedermawanan, dalam masyarakat muslim. Tidak mengherankan, Ramadan merupakan salah satu momen puncak yang berlangsung sebulan penuh untuk peningkatan amal ibadah.
Bukan hanya ibadah puasa, tetapi juga untuk ibadah yang bersifat filantropis, yang diwujudkan dalam berbagai bentuknya, sejak dari pemberian makanan untuk berbuka bagi kalangan masyarakat muslim yang membutuhkannya sampai kepada berbagai bentuk kedermawanan lainnya.
Buku berjudul Melayani Umat: Filantropi Islam dan Ideologi Kesejahteraan Kaum Modernis ini hadir membawa pesan ihwal seluk-beluk filantropi islam di negeri ini, serta dielaborasikan penerangan sentuhan kemodernisan dalam perkembangannya.
Dengan ekses positif kultur dan struktur yang “berideologikan” kesejahteraan umat, buku ini mengurai rumusan visi kesejahteraan perserikatan Muhammadiyah dalam memasuki “babak baru” perjuangannya,dengan doktrin wacana.
Kebijakan, praktik, proses mobilisasi yang lebih segar serta dilematisasi di dalamnya. Dijelaskan, meningkatnya angka kemiskinan dewasa ini merupakan indikator paling nyata dari ketidakadilan dan ketimpangan sosial yang terjadi di Indonesia.
Anehnya, pundi-pundi pendapatan lembaga-lembaga filantropi Islam di Indonesia justru seakan berpacu seiring lajunya angka kemiskinan.
Sebagian kalangan masih berharap bahwa aktivisme filantropi yaitu kegiatan komunitas yang tujuannya meningkatkan kualitas hidup masyarakat, di antaranya melalui kegiatan melayani umat sebagai hakikat murni bentuk pencurahan diri melayani Tuhan dan ekspresi-ekspresi kesalehan sosial lainnya dapat memberikan kontribusi pada peningkatan taraf hidup masyarakat miskin.
Tren filantropisme Islam di Indonesia jelas terus meningkat, seiring dengan peningkatan taraf peningkatan ekonomi kaum muslim. Begitu juga dengan kegiatan yang dibawahi Muhammadiyah yang secara modernis ikut meningkatkan kiat kepedulian dan kedermawanan umat terhadap kaum duafa.
Hilman menerangkan bahwa peningkatan realisasi filantropisme Islam itu mendorong kemunculan kian banyak lembaga pengumpul dan pendistribusi dana filantropisme Islam.
Tentunya, kredibilitas dan akuntabilitas sebagai asas modern merupakan modal utama trust terhadap lembaga ini. Selanjutnya, dalam dekadensi itu, lembaga filantropi Muhammadiyah dinilai semakin bergerak maju, sesuai esensi awal cita-cita dan tujuan pendirian organisasi tersebut oleh KH Ahmad Dahlan. Ini begitu berdampak positif bagi perkembangan moral kepedulian dan solidaritas masyarakat kita.
Bagi saya, buku ini menganjurkan agar seyogianya lembaga-lembaga filantropi Islam di Indonesia bisa mentransformasikan dirinya menuju paradigma filantropi untuk keadilan sosial. Menafikan peran negara yang terus-menerus dirundung kemelut multidimensi.
Peresensi adalah Muhammad Bagus Irawan, mahasiswa IAIN Walisongo, Semarang.
Sumber : http://www.koran-jakarta.com/berita-detail.php?id=60381
Wednesday, December 15, 2010
Muhammadiyah dan Kebangkitan Islam di Indonesia
(Pokok-pokok pikiran dalam diskusi panel dengan warga Muhammadiyah Wilayah DKI Jakarta Raya, 4 Januari 1981)
Wahid, Abdurrahman. 1981. Muslim di tengah pergumulan: berbagai pandangan Abdurrahman Wahid. Jakarta: Lembaga Penunjang Pembangunan Nasional. pp. 32-37.
Muhmmadiyah adalah bagian dari gerakan pembaharuan atau reformasi yang terjadi di seluruh dunia Islam semenjak dua abad atau tiga abad yang lalu (semenjak Ibn Taimiyah dan Muhammad ibn Abdil Wahhab yang mengemukakan pandangan pemurnian mereka). Ia membawakan sebuah pola keyakinan agama yang sama sekali baru di kalangan kaum muslimin Indonesia, sehingga terjadi perubahan revolusioner yang bersifat mendasar dalam keyakinan yang tidak hanya bersifat keagamaan murni belaka, melainkan melimpah juga ke sektor-sektor lain (seperti pendidikan, kemasyarakatan, ilmu pengetahuan dan sebagainya).
Aktivisme kemasyarakatan ini adalah inti dari responsi ummat Islam terhadap berbagai macam tantangan yang dihadapinya kini, dari apa yang dirumuskan sebagai bahaya Kristenisasi hingga kepada bahaya sekularisme yang dianggap sebagai ekses-ekses terbesar dari proses pembangunan yang sedang kita jalani sekarang. Mitsuo Nakamura menangkap dengan jelas aktivisme kemasyarakatan gerakan Muhammadiyah ini sebagai inti kekuatannya dalam menghadapi triligi tantangan yang mengancam eksistensi gerakan ini di Kotagede yakni:
Proses Jawanisasi yang dilancarkan dari kraton Mataram, proses sekularisasi ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi yang berpusat pada Universitas Gajah Mada dan IKIP, dan persaingan dengan penguasa non-pribumi yang mematikan kewiraswastaan para saudagar Muhammadiyah yang bergerak di bidang kerajinan perak dan industri batik.
Salah satu hal yang mendorong munculnya orientasi untuk cenderung kepada kegiatan praktis sebagai perwujudan diri, yang menjadi inti aktivisme kemasyarakatan itu, adalah watak egalitarian dari Muhammadiyah dalam pemikiran-pemikiran keagamaannya. Egalitarianisme ini tercermin dalam susunan majlis Tarjih dan Majlis Tanwir-nya, yang tidak mendasarkan besarnya pesantren yang diasuh dan pengaruh massa yang dimiliki oleh para calon anggotanya. Reputasi dalam pengabdian, ketekunan dan ketaatan asas (konsistensi) dalam pandangan agama dan pengetahuan minimal di bidang ilmu-ilmu agama sudah cukup untuk menjadi anggota kedua lembaga tertinggi Muhammadiyah tersebut.
Yang jarang sekali disadari justru adalah kelemahan Muhammadiyah sebenarnya juga bersumber pada egalitarianisme tersebut. Orientasi serba egalitarian itu akhirnya memunculkan dominasi kaum professional kemasyarakatan (social professionals) seperti kalangan kedokteran, teknik, perdagangan, dan pendidikan dan sebagainya. kedudukan kaum agamawan sebagai pengarah kehidupan Muhammadiyah lalu mengalami transformasi sangat besar.
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Monday, December 13, 2010
Caught between social and market considerations: a case study of Muhammadiyah charitable health services
Volume 18, Issue 36, November 2010, Pages 25-34
Caught between social and market considerations: a case study of Muhammadiyah charitable health services
Rosalia Sciortinoa, , Neni Ridarinenib and Brahmaputra Marjadic
a Health Adviser, AusAID, Jakarta, Indonesia, and Associate Professor, Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
b Journalist, Republika, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
c Head, Public Health Department, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Wijaya Kusuma Surabaya, Surabaya, Indonesia
Abstract
A case study of Muhammadiyah's Islamic charitable health services in the islands of Java and Sumatra, Indonesia, was undertaken in 2008, to assess the impact of privatization of health care on this socially-oriented service provider, especially in terms of access for the poor. Findings presented here relate primarily to the effects on Muhammadiyah's maternal and child health and contraceptive services. In order to survive and thrive amidst private and public competitors, Muhammadiyah's primary care units, mostly consisting of maternal and child health centres and maternity clinics, when not closed altogether, have been directed toward providing curative hospital services, and more expensive and sometimes unnecessary treatment. A shift in the patient population away from the poor has also occurred, as market pressures transform this charitable enterprise into a commercial one, prejudicing reproductive health care and reducing access for those most in need. An improved stewardship role by government is needed to regulate the private sector, along with serious thinking about the future of primary and preventive care and health promotion, including for comprehensive reproductive health care. The neglect of these core primary care elements in Indonesia may worsen as privatization proceeds and profit considerations become more pressing with increased competition.Keywords: privatization and commercialization of services, faith-based health services, maternal and child health care, family planning services, Indonesia
Article Outline
- Muhammadiyah and its charitable health enterprises
- Traditional focus on reproductive health services
- Transforming MCH clinics into hospitals
- Towards a more affluent patient population
- Continuing support for the poor?
- Trend towards more expensive, commercial and unnecessary treatment
- Reflections
- Acknowledgements
- References
Sunday, December 5, 2010
Sufi elements in Muhammadiyah? Notes from field observation
Paper read at the Fifth Annual Conference of the Australian Association for the Study of Religions, 11-15 May, 1980, held concurrently with the international conference on Islam: "The Qur'an through Fourteens Centuries," 8-13 May, 1980, at the Australian National University, Canberra, Australia.
For some tima, among Western, or perhaps I shall say more precisely, American social scientists studying contemporary Islam in Java, it has been an convention to make categorical distinctions between modernist and traditionalist trends, with special reference to the position of Sufism. Presumably, rationalistic, legalistic, and scripturalistic modernist Islam has rid itself of Sufism as an expression of irrationality, as compromises with local pre-Islamic beliefs and customs, or even as a propensity for polytheism inherent in traditionalist Islam. Sufism has thus become a defining feature for those social scientists who have employed a neat typology of modernism versus traditionalism. According to Clifford Geertz, perhaps the most widely read American social scientist who has made observations of contemporary Islam in Java, Sufism, or any form of mysticism for that matter, is an "anathema" to modernism (1960:154).
When I started my own anthropological field work in Central Java in 1970, I had little doubt about the validity of Geertz's observation. I was studying the local history and contemporary situation of the Muhammadiyah movement in a small town called Kotagede, Yogyakarta, Central Java. (See Nakamura 1976; 1977; and 1979.) Nationally, with its half-a-million members, Muhammadiyah is regarded as the most representative modernist Muslim movement in Indonesia today. However, through my initial two years' field experience and intermittent visits to my field site i the subsequent period up to now, I have come to develop some reservations vis-a-vis the conventional view described above.
On a number of occasions I have observed in the field what might be called the persistence of Sufi-like ideas and practices among the townspeople, including Muhammadiyah members. The history of Muhammadiyah in the town is almost as old as its history in the city of Yogyakarta where it was born in 1912, and the townspeople's religious beliefs and practices have undergone a great deal of transformation thanks mostly to the Muhammadiyah movement over generations. My observations include the following: the perception of self in terms of hawa nafsu, lowly desire, and nafsu mutmainnah, a desire for tranquility; the emphasis on akhlak, moral character, over akal, intelect; the exhortations of voluntary prayers, salat sunna, in addition to obligatory prayers, salat wajib; the practice of dhikir, numerous uttering of short formulae with the use of a rosary, individually and in company; and wirid, the repeated recitation of certain verses of the Qur'an.
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Saturday, December 4, 2010
Din Syamsuddin and Hanukkah
The Huffington Post, December 4, 2010
Hanukkah and Interfaith Dialogue: Increasing Our Shared Light
Rabbi Sid SchwarzOn the first night of Hanukkah this year, I found myself in an unusual place. I was supposed to be at a Jewish communal event hosted by Israel's Ambassador to the United States, Michael Oren. But at the last minute I was asked by the Indonesian Ambassador, Dino Patti Djalal, to participate in an interfaith panel which included one of the leading Muslim clerics of his country, Dr. Din Syamsuddin. Dr. Syamsuddin is the president of Muhammadiyah, an organization of 29 million Muslims that sponsors a wide range of social and educational programs in Indonesia and more than a dozen universities. Also on the panel was Rev. Michael Livingston, a Presbyterian and former president of the National Council of Churches who is now heading up their initiative to fight poverty.
The fact is that I only accepted the invitation because of a remarkable speech I heard given by Ambassador Djalal a week earlier as part of an international conference sponsored by the Center for Interfaith Action on Global Poverty (CIFA). The organization was unveiling a new initiative to increase the engagement of faith communities in health and development efforts around the globe.
The Ambassador, who hosted a dinner for the delegates, shared his concerns about the extent to which the world was witnessing an increase in religious extremism. A Muslim himself, Djalal bemoaned the fact that in his own country religious communities that had lived side by side in harmony for centuries were set against each other because of the actions of a handful of religious zealots. He called upon the faith leaders gathered to engage in "militant moderation," by which he meant that those of us who believe that religions can bring healing balm to a world beset by war, disease and poverty must be far more assertive than the voices of religious extremism. He called for a new "technology of peace" which would be based not on rehashing the prejudices and grievances of past generations but rather on the more positive model of interfaith collaboration to address the most pressing issues of the world.
So committed was Ambassador Djalal to advancing this kind of interfaith understanding that he arranged to bring a TV crew in from Indonesia in a matter of days to tape the conversation between Dr. Syamsuddin, Rev. Livingston and me. The program will air in prime time on one of Indonesia's most popular programs the week before Christmas. He wanted to model for his country the ways that religious leaders from different faiths could sit together and find common ground.
For those acquainted with interfaith dialogue, the conversation covered familiar territory. We discussed how people could be loyal to their respective faiths but still be open to and respectful of those who were adherents of another faith. And while this particular dialogue took place only between representatives of the Abrahamic traditions, the nature of the conversation sent a message to the broader community of the faithful. No responsible representation of God's will, from any faith perspective, could possibly sanction hatred or violence against another child of God.
Hanukkah is called "the festival of lights." It marks the victory of the Jews against their Hellenized Syrian oppressors in the land of Israel during the second century BCE. The Jews had none of the weaponry of their occupiers. Yet the Maccabees would not succumb to the demands of the Syrians to give up their religious beliefs and practices. The fact that the Maccabees ultimately prevailed is recorded as the first war in history fought for religious liberty. Appropriately enough, the annual Jewish cycle of Scriptural readings assigns to the festival of Hanukkah a selection from the Book of Zecharia (4:6): "Not by might and not by power but by spirit, says the Lord of heaven."
Two thousand years later, we are still fighting the same battles. In a world that is changing so rapidly, religion provides comfort, continuity and timeless certainty to millions of the faithful in the world. But often that religious package also includes heavy doses of triumphalism, chauvinism and intolerance. It is incumbent on religious leaders to help their adherents distinguish between the elements of faith that foster peace and understanding and those that lead to prejudice and extremism.
As with Christmas and Kwanza, Hanukkah falls during the winter solstice. It is the darkest time of the year. Appropriately enough, all three festivals have as a central symbol candles and light. If we are to move our world closer to the messianic ideal articulated in the sacred texts of most of the world's religions, each of us will need to find ways to light a candle, increase the light and banish away the darkness.
Retrieved from: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/rabbi-sid-schwarz/hanukkah-increasing-the-l_b_791548.html (December 4, 2010)
Friday, December 3, 2010
Muslim Enlightenment and Revitalization: Movements of Modernization and Reform in Tsarist Russia and the Dutch East Indies (ca. 1900-1940)
Muslim Enlightenment and Revitalization
Author: Waardenburg, Jacques
Source: Die Welt des Islams, Volume 28, Numbers 1-4, 1988 , pp. 569-584(16)
Publisher: BRILL
Muslim reform movements have been the subject of scholarly research for some time. Studies have been devoted to the Wahhabis, 'Uthman Dan Fodio and the Sanusis, and many more to the modern reform movements in India and Egypt, North Africa, Iran and of course Ottoman and Republican Turkey. Less attention has been paid, however, to such movements as have occurred on the periphery, partly because of the relative inaccessibility of direct sources for some regions. The aim of this contribution is to demonstrate the fact that there were important reform movements in Tsarist Russia from the middle of the 19th century on, and in the formerly Dutch East Indies from the beginning of this century, and to discuss the question how we should study such movements.
Since George Antonius and others we tend to connect the awakening of Muslim societies primarily with rising political resistance, and since Hamilton Gibb we are inclined to interpret the awakening of Muslim minds primarily in terms of modern trends in Islam.
As a result we run the risk of reading back into what took place before World War I and even World War II much of those ideological movements of nationalism and Islamism which have established their grasp on both Muslim and Western minds during the last forty or fifty years. Present-day ideological concerns can very well prevent us first from accurately observing what really went on, and second from offering adequate interpretations of what took place in Muslim societies.
Islamicists professionally concentrate on Islam; on closer consideration, however, the Muslim awakening before World War I was not always a concentration on what Islam was like. It rather seems to have been a growing awareness of the sad condition in which Muslims and Muslim societies found themselves, especially when compared to the West, and of the obvious fact that this poor condition was not up to the norms and ideals of Islam. It was in part with the help of the notion of Islam and the values and norms they derived from it that Muslim thinkers acquired awareness of this condition and looked for ways to improve it. As a result they arrived at a new world view and life orientation, and they arrived at new ways of action. If Islamicists somehow tend to be fascinated by Islam-whatever the Islam they perceive-, our research into 19th and early 20th century Muslim awakening must try to escape that fascination. Such research must be cleared of ideological biases on our part as much as possible, and certainly of any ideologization of Islam, by either taking it as an entity in itself or, on the contrary, explaining away Islamic qualities by a belief only in the working of infrastructural factors and overlooking the human responses to them.
The following data are taken precisely from Muslim societies on the periphery, which we do not tend to identify with "Islam" as we tend to do in the study of the heartlands of Islam or in general studies of Islamic religion and civilization. Studying Muslim societies in Tsarist Russia and the Dutch East Indies with special reference to modern reform movements may shed some light on how we should study phenomena of Muslim reawakening and enlightenment in general without putting them into negative or positive ideological frameworks. It may also make us aware of the immensity of the task of dealing with the modern and contemporary history of a world religion like Islam, precisely if we want to go beyond the external facts of history to the intentions of the people who made it and are making it nowadays. Apart from such methodological concerns we may detect some features common to modern reform movements in regions which had no historical contacts with each other. There may be resemblances between the leaders with vision who brought about an emancipation of so many Muslims from seemingly fixed patterns and traditions. Even some common problems of policy towards Islam may show up among Russian and Dutch policy makers and administrators. And perhaps our inquiry may be able to conclude something about certain preconditions for reform movements of the liberal type as described here.